Digital signal processing

Digital signal processing (DSP) is concerned with the representation of discrete time signals by a sequence of numbers or symbols and the processing of these signals. Digital signal processing and analog signal processing are subfields of signal processing. DSP includes subfields like: audio and speech signal processing, sonar and radar signal processing, sensor array processing, spectral estimation, statistical signal processing, digital image processing, signal processing for communications, control of systems, biomedical signal processing, seismic data processing, etc.

The goal of DSP is usually to measure, filter and/or compress continuous real-world analog signals. The first step is usually to convert the signal from an analog to a digital form, by sampling it using an analog-to-digital converter (ADC), which turns the analog signal into a stream of numbers. However, often, the required output signal is another analog output signal, which requires a digital-to-analog converter (DAC). Even if this process is more complex than analog processing and has a discrete value range, the application of computational power to digital signal processing allows for many advantages over analog processing in many applications, such as error detection and correction in transmission as well as data compression.

DSP algorithms have long been run on standard computers, on specialized processors called digital signal processors (DSPs), or on purpose-built hardware such as application-specific integrated circuit (ASICs). Today there are additional technologies used for digital signal processing including more powerful general purpose microprocessors, field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), digital signal controllers (mostly for industrial apps such as motor control), and stream processors, among others.

What is digital signal ?pp

A signal in which the original information is converted into a string of bits before being transmitted. A radio signal, for example, will be either on or off. Digital signals can be sent for long distances and suffer less interference than Analog signals. The communications industry worldwide is in the midst of a switch to digital signals.Sound storage in a compact disk is in digital form.

What is DBMS?

As one of the oldest components associated with computers, the database management system, or DBMS, is a computer software program that is designed as the means of managing all databases that are currently installed on a system hard drive or network. Different types of database management systems exist, with some of them designed for the oversight and proper control of databases that are configured for specific purposes. Here are some examples of the various incarnations of DBMS technology that are currently in use, and some of the basic elements that are part of DBMS software applications.

As the tool that is employed in the broad practice of managing databases, the DBMS is marketed in many forms. Some of the more popular examples of DBMS solutions include Microsoft Access, FileMaker, DB2, and Oracle. All these products provide for the creation of a series of rights or privileges that can be associated with a specific user. This means that it is possible to designate one or more database administrators who may control each function, as well as provide other users with various levels of administration rights. This flexibility makes the task of using DBMS methods to oversee a system something that can be centrally controlled, or allocated to several different people.

There are four essential elements that are found with just about every example of DBMS currently on the market. The first is the implementation of a modeling language that serves to define the language of each database that is hosted via the DBMS. There are several approaches currently in use, with hierarchical, network, relational, and object examples. Essentially, the modeling language ensures the ability of the databases to communicate with the DBMS and thus operate on the system.

Second, data structures also are administered by the DBMS. Examples of data that are organized by this function are individual profiles or records, files, fields and their definitions, and objects such as visual media. Data structures are what allows DBMS to interact with the data without causing and damage to the integrity of the data itself.

A third component of DBMS software is the data query language. This element is involved in maintaining the security of the database, by monitoring the use of login data, the assignment of access rights and privileges, and the definition of the criteria that must be employed to add data to the system. The data query language works with the data structures to make sure it is harder to input irrelevant data into any of the databases in use on the system.

Last, a mechanism that allows for transactions is an essential basic for any DBMS. This helps to allow multiple and concurrent access to the database by multiple users, prevents the manipulation of one record by two users at the same time, and preventing the creation of duplicate records.

Internal command

A command that is stored in the system memory and loaded from the command.com. Below are examples of internal commands in MS-DOS and the Windows command line currently listed in the Computer Hope database.Assoc
Atmadm
Break
Call
CD
Chdir
Cls
Color
Copy
Ctty
Date
Del
Dir
Drivparm
Echo
Endlocal
Erase
Exit For
Goto
If
LH
Loadhigh
Lock
Md
Mkdir
Move
Path
Pause
Popd
Prompt
Pushd Rd
Ren
Rename
Rmdir
Set
Setlocal
Shift
Start
Switches
Time
Title
Type Unlock
Ver
Verify
Vol

External command

A MS-DOS command that is not included in command.com. External commands are commonly external either because they require large requirements or are not commonly used commands. Below are examples of MS-DOS and Windows command line external commands currently listed in the Computer Hope database.Append
Arp
Assign
At
Attrib
Backup
Cacls
Chcp
Chkdsk
Chkntfs
Choice
Cipher
Comp
Compact
Convert
Debug
Defrag
Delpart
Deltree
Diskcomp
Diskcopy
Doskey
Dosshell
Dumpchk
Edit
Edlin
Expand
Extract
Fasthelp
Fc
Fdisk
Find
Forfiles
Format
FTP
Gpupdate
Graftabl
Help
Hostname
Ipconfig
Label
Loadfix
logoff
Mem
Mode
More
Msav
Msbackup
Mscdex
Mscdexnt
Mwbackup
Msd
Nbtstat Net
Netsh
Netstat
Nlsfunc
Nslookup
Pathping
Ping
Power
Print
Reg
Robocopy
Route
Runas
Scandisk
Scanreg
Setver
Sfc
Share
Shutdown
Smartdrv
Sort
Subst
Sys
Systeminfo Taskkill
Tasklist
Telnet
Tracert
Tree
Tskill
Undelete
Unformat
Xcopy

Many of the external commands are located in the Windows\system32 or Winnt\system32 directories. If you need to locate the external file in order to delete it, rename it or replace it, you can also find the file through MS-DOS.

Keyboard

One of the main input devices used on a computer, a PC's keyboard looks very similar to the keyboards of electric typewriters, with some additional keys. Below is a graphic of the Saitek Gamers' keyboard with indicators pointing to each of the major portions of the keyboard.



Finally, today most users use the QWERTY style keyboards

IP

Short for Internet Protocol, IP is an address of a computer or other network device on a network using IP or TCP/IP. For example, the number "166.70.10.23" is an example of such an address. These addresses are similar to an addresses used on a house and is what allows data to reach the appropriate destination on a network.

There are five classes of available IP ranges: Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D and Class E, while only A, B and C are commonly used. Each class allows for a range of valid IP addresses. Below is a listing of these addresses.Class Address Range Supports
Class A 1.0.0.1 to 126.255.255.254 Supports 16 million hosts on each of 127 networks.
Class B 128.1.0.1 to 191.255.255.254 Supports 65,000 hosts on each of 16,000 networks.
Class C 192.0.1.1 to 223.255.254.254 Supports 254 hosts on each of 2 million networks.
Class D 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255 Reserved for multicast groups.
Class E 240.0.0.0 to 254.255.255.254 Reserved for future use, or Research and Development Purposes.


Ranges 127.x.x.x are reserved for loopback or localhost, for example, 127.0.0.1 is the common loopback address. Range 255.255.255.255 broadcasts to all hosts on the local network.

IP address breakdown

Every IP address is broke down into four sets of octets that break down into binary to represent the actual IP address. The below chart is an example of the IP 255.255.255.255. If you are new to binary, we highly recommend reading our binary and hexadecimal conversions section to get a better understanding of what we're doing in the below charts.IP: 255 255 255 255
Binary value: 11111111 11111111 11111111 11111111
Octet value: 8 8 8 8


If we were to break down the IP "166.70.10.23", you would get the below value. The below fist row is the IP address, the second row the binary values, and the third row the binary value calculated to equal the total of that section of the IP address.
166 70 10 23
10100110 01000110 00001010 00010111
128+32+4+2=166 64+4+2=70 8+2=10 16+4+2+1=23



Automatically assigned addresses

There are several IP addresses that are automatically assigned when you setup a home network. These default addresses are what allow your computer and other network devices to communicate and broadcast information over your network. Below is the most commonly assigned network addresses in a home network.
192.168.1.0 0 is the automatically assigned network address.
192.168.1.1 1 is the commonly used address used as the gateway.
192.168.1.2 2 is also a commonly used address used for a gateway.
192.168.1.3 - 254 Addresses beyond 3 are assigned to computers and devices on the network.
192.168.1.255 255 is automatically assigned on most networks as the broadcast address.


Getting an IP address

By default the router you use will assign each of your computers their own IP address, often using NAT to forward the data coming from those computers to outside networks such as the Internet. If you need to register an IP address that can be seen on the Internet, you must register through InterNIC or use a web host that can assign you addresses.

ASCII

Short for American Standard Code for Information Interexchange, ASCII is an industry standard, which assigns letters, numbers and other characters within the 256 slots available in the 8-bit code.

The ASCII table is divided in 3 sections:
Non printable, system codes between 0 and 31.
Lower ASCII, between 32 and 127. This part of the table (as shown below) originates from older, American systems, which worked on 7-bit character tables. Foreign letters, like and were not available then.
Higher ASCII, between 128 and 255. This part is programmable, in that you can exchange characters based on language you want to write in. Foreign letters are placed in this part and an example is shown below.

Standard aka Lower ASCII characters and codesDec Char Dec Char Dec Char Dec Char Dec Char Dec Char
33 ! 49 1 65 A 81 Q 97 a 113 q
34 " 50 2 66 B 82 R 98 b 114 r
35 # 51 3 67 C 83 S 99 c 115 s
36 $ 52 4 68 D 84 T 100 d 116 t
37 % 53 5 69 E 85 U 101 e 117 u
38 & 54 6 70 F 86 V 102 f 118 v
39 ' 55 7 71 G 87 W 103 g 119 w
40 ( 56 8 72 H 88 X 104 h 120 x
41 ) 57 9 73 I 89 Y 105 i 121 y
42 * 58 : 74 J 90 Z 106 j 122 z
43 + 59 ; 75 K 91 [ 107 k 123 {
44 , 60 < 76 L 92 \ 108 l 124 | 45 - 61 = 77 M 93 ] 109 m 125 } 46 . 62 > 78 N 94 ^ 110 n 126 ~
47 / 63 ? 79 O 95 _ 111 o 127 _
48 0 64 @ 80 P 96 ` 112 p


Extended ASCII uses eight instead of seven bits, which adds 128 additional characters. This gives extended ASCII the ability for extra characters, such as special symbols, foreign language letters, and drawing characters

Microsoft Word shortcut keys

Below is a listing of all the major shortcut keys in Microsoft Word. See the computer shortcut page if you are looking for other shortcut keys used in other programs.
Shortcut Keys Description
Ctrl + 0 Adds or removes 6pts of spacing before a paragraph.
Ctrl + A Select all contents of the page.
Ctrl + B Bold highlighted selection.
Ctrl + C Copy selected text.
Ctrl + E Aligns the line or selected text to the center of the screen.
Ctrl + F Open find box.
Ctrl + I Italic highlighted selection.
Ctrl + J Aligns the selected text or line to justify the screen.
Ctrl + K Insert link.
Ctrl + L
Aligns the line or selected text to the left of the screen.
Ctrl + M Indent the paragraph.
Ctrl + P Open the print window.
Ctrl + R Aligns the line or selected text to the right of the screen.
Ctrl + T Create a hanging indent.
Ctrl + U Underline highlighted selection.
Ctrl + V Paste.
Ctrl + X Cut selected text.
Ctrl + Y Redo the last action performed.
Ctrl + Z Undo last action.
Ctrl + Shift + L Quickly create a bullet point.
Ctrl + Shift + F Change the font.
Ctrl + Shift + > Increase selected font +1pts up to 12pt and then increases font +2pts.
Ctrl + ] Increase selected font +1pts.
Ctrl + Shift + < Decrease selected font -1pts if 12pt or lower, if above 12 decreases font by +2pt. Ctrl + [ Decrease selected font -1pts. Ctrl + / + c Insert a cent sign (¢). Ctrl + ' + Insert a character with an accent (grave) mark, where is the character you want. For example, if you wanted an accented è you would use Ctrl + ' + e as your shortcut key. To reverse the accent mark use the opposite accent mark, often on the tilde key.
Ctrl + Shift + * View or hide non printing characters.
Ctrl + Moves one word to the left.
Ctrl + Moves one word to the right.
Ctrl + Moves to the beginning of the line or paragraph.
Ctrl + Moves to the end of the paragraph.
Ctrl + Del Deletes word to right of cursor.
Ctrl + Backspace Deletes word to left of cursor.
Ctrl + End Moves the cursor to the end of the document.
Ctrl + Home Moves the cursor to the beginning of the document.
Ctrl + Spacebar Reset highlighted text to the default font.
Ctrl + 1 Single-space lines.
Ctrl + 2 Double-space lines.
Ctrl + 5 1.5-line spacing.
Ctrl + Alt + 1 Changes text to heading 1.
Ctrl + Alt + 2 Changes text to heading 2.
Ctrl + Alt + 3 Changes text to heading 3.
Alt + Ctrl + F2 Open new document.
Ctrl + F1 Open the Task Pane.
Ctrl + F2 Display the print preview.
Ctrl + Shift + > Increases the highlighted text size by one.
Ctrl + Shift + < Decreases the highlighted text size by one.
Ctrl + Shift + F6 Opens to another open Microsoft Word document.
Ctrl + Shift + F12 Prints the document.
F1 Open Help.
F4 Repeat the last action performed (Word 2000+)
F5 Open the find, replace, and go to window in Microsoft Word.
F7 Spellcheck and grammar check selected text or document.
F12 Save as.
Shift + F3 Change the text in Microsoft Word from uppercase to lowercase or a capital letter at the beginning of every word.
Shift + F7 Runs a Thesaurus check on the word highlighted.
Shift + F12 Save.
Shift + Enter Create a soft break instead of a new paragraph.
Shift + Insert Paste.
Shift + Alt + D Insert the current date.
Shift + Alt + T Insert the current time.


In addition to the above shortcut keys users can also use their mouse as a method of quickly do something commonly performed. Below some are examples of mouse shortcuts.Mouse shortcuts Description
Click, hold, and drag Selects text from where you click and hold to the point you drag and let go.
Double-click If double-click a word, selects the complete word.
Double-click Double-clicking on the left, center, or right of a blank line will make the alignment of the text left, center, or right aligned.
Double-click Double-clicking anywhere after text on a line will set a tab stop.
Triple-click Selects the line or paragraph of the text the mouse triple-clicked.
Ctrl + Mouse wheel Zooms in and out of document.

How do I make a picture a link in my Webpage?

Use the A HREF link tag around the IMG image tag as shown below.



The above example would give you the below clickable image link.

How do I make a link to another web page?

Specify the complete URL in the A HREF tag as shown below.

Visit ComputerHope

Replace our address with the address that you would like to link. Where it says "Visit ComputerHope" replace this what you want to name the link.

DOS

DOS, short for "Disk Operating System",[1] is an acronym for several closely related operating systems that dominated the IBM PC compatible market between 1981 and 1995, or until about 2000 if one includes the partially DOS-based Microsoft Windows versions 95, 98, and Millennium Edition.

Related systems include MS-DOS, PC-DOS, DR-DOS, FreeDOS, PTS-DOS, ROM-DOS, Caldera DOS, Novell DOS and several others.

In spite of the common usage, none of these systems were simply named "DOS" (a name given only to an unrelated IBM mainframe operating system in the 1960s). A number of unrelated, non-x86 microcomputer disk operating systems had "DOS" in their name, and are often referred to simply as "DOS" when discussing machines that use them (e.g. AmigaDOS, AMSDOS, ANDOS, Apple DOS, Atari DOS, Commodore DOS, CSI-DOS, ProDOS, and TRS-DOS). While providing many of the same operating system functions for their respective computer systems, programs running under any one of these operating systems would not run under others.

User interface

DOS systems utilize a command line interface. Programs are started by entering their filename at the command prompt. DOS systems include several programs as system utilities, and provides additional commands that don't correspond to programs (internal commands).

In an attempt to provide a more user-friendly environment, numerous software manufacturers wrote file management programs that provided users with menu- and/or icon-based interfaces. Microsoft Windows is a notable example, eventually resulting in Microsoft Windows 9x becoming a self-contained program loader, and replacing DOS as the most-used PC-compatible program loader. Text user interface programs included Norton Commander, Dos Navigator, Volkov Commander, Quarterdesk DESQview, and SideKick. Graphical user interface programs included Digital Research's Graphical Environment Manager (originally written for CP/M) and GEOS.

Eventually, the manufacturers of major DOS systems began to include their own environment managers. MS-DOS/IBM DOS 4 included DOS Shell;[36] DR-DOS 5, released the next year, included ViewMAX, based upon GEM.

Limitations

Several limitations plague the DOS architecture. The original 8088 microprocessor could only address 1 megabyte of physical RAM. With additional hardware devices being mapped into this range, the highest amount of available memory was 640 kilobytes, known as conventional memory. Due to DOS's structure, this was assumed to be the maximum, and DOS could not address more than this. An early workaround was expanded memory; later, extended memory was developed with the 80286. While these provided usable memory to applications, they still had to start in conventional memory, thereby using part of the existing 640 KB. With the 80386 microprocessor's redesigned protected mode, DOS extenders and the DOS Protected Mode Interface were able to provide additional memory to applications, as well as multitasking.

DOS also has an upper limit to the size of hard disk partitions. This has two causes. First, many DOS-type systems never had support for any file system newer than FAT16, which, by design, does not allow partitions larger than 2.1 gigabytes.[43] Additionally, DOS accesses the hard disk by calling Interrupt 13, which utilizes the cylinder-head-sector system of mapping the disk. Under this system, only 8 gigabytes are visible to the operating system.[44] Newer operating systems accomplished disk access via software means, e.g. 32-bit disk access.

Using FAT16 (and FAT12 for floppy disks) required use of the 8.3 filename. Filenames in DOS can not be longer than eight characters, and the filename extension cannot be longer than three. Win95's patented VFAT hack worked around this in a unique way.

What Is A Workstation ?

A workstation is a high-end microcomputer designed for technical or scientific applications. Intended primarily to be used by one person at a time, they are commonly connected to a local area network and run multi-user operating systems. The term workstation has also been used to refer to a mainframe computer terminal or a PC connected to a network.

Historically, workstations had offered higher performance than desktop computers, especially with respect to CPU and graphics, memory capacity and multitasking capability. They are optimized for the visualization and manipulation of different types of complex data such as 3D mechanical design, engineering simulation (e.g. computational fluid dynamics), animation and rendering of images, and mathematical plots. Consoles consist of a high resolution display, a keyboard and a mouse at a minimum, but also offer multiple displays, graphics tablets, 3D mice (devices for manipulating and navigating 3D objects and scenes), etc. Workstations are the first segment of the computer market to present advanced accessories and collaboration tools.

Presently, the workstation market is highly commoditized and is dominated by large PC vendors, such as Dell and HP, selling Microsoft Windows/Linux running on Intel Xeon/AMD Opteron. Alternative UNIX based platforms are provided by Apple Inc., Sun Microsystems, and SGI.

MsgBox Function:

MsgBox Function:

Displays a dialog box containing a message, buttons, and optional icon to the user. The Action taken by the user is returned by the function as an integer value.

Syntax: MsgBox(prompt, buttons, title, helpfile, context)

Arguments:
* Prompt: The text of the message to display in the message box dialog.
* Buttons: The sum of the Button, Icon, Default Button, and Modality constant values.
* Title: The title displayed in the Title-bar of the message box dialog.
* Helpfile: An expression specifying the name of the help file to provide help functionality for the dialog.
* Context: An expression specifying a context ID within helpfile.

InputBox Function

InputBox Function:

The InputBox function displays a dialog box containing a label, which prompts the user about the data you expect them to input, a text box for entering the data, an OK button, a Cancel button, and optionally, a Help button. When the user clicks OK, the function returns the contents of the text box.

Syntax: InputBox(prompt,title,default,xpos, ypos, helpfile, context)

Arguments:
* Prompt: The message in the dialog box.
* Title: The title-bar of the dialog box.
* Default: String to be displayed in the text box on loading.
* Xpos: The distance from the left side of the screen to the left side of the dialog.
* Ypos: The distance from the top of the screen to the top of the dialog box.
* Helpfile: The Help file to use if the user clicks the Help button on the dialog box.
* Context: The context number to use within the Help file specified in helpfile.

Displaying Help by Using the InputBox and MsgBox Functions

Both the InputBox and MsgBox functions provide optional helpfile and context arguments that can be used to display a Help topic when a user clicks the Help button or presses F1. To display a custom Help topic, you must specify both optional arguments. The helpfile argument is a string value that specifies the Help file that contains the topic you want to display. This argument can accept either a .chm or .hlp file. The context argument specifies the mapped context ID of the topic to display.

If you specify the helpfile and context arguments when you are using the InputBox function, a Help button will automatically be added to the dialog box created by the InputBox function. If you specify the helpfile and context arguments when you are using the MsgBox function, you must also specify the vbMsgBoxHelpButton built-in constant in the buttons argument in order to add a Help button to the dialog box created by the MsgBox function.

The following code fragment shows how to display a Help topic when you are using the InputBox function:
InputBox Prompt:="Enter data", _
HelpFile:=strAppPath & "\sample.chm", _
Context:="2001"

The following line of code shows how to display a Help topic when you are using the MsgBox function:

MsgBox Prompt:="You must enter a valid date.", _
Buttons:=vbMsgBoxHelpButton, _
HelpFile:=strAppPath & "\sample.chm", _
Context:="2002"





The InputBox and MsgBox functions allow you to display a Help topic contained in a compiled HTML Help file in all Office applications, including Word and Access. There is no need to use the HtmlHelp API to display a Help topic in a .chm file when you are using these functions in Word and Access.

What Is USB?

Types of Universal Serial Bus (USB) devices and standards

Today just about every PC comes with Universal Serial Bus, or USB ports. In fact, many computers will even have additional USB ports located on the front of the tower, in additional to two standard USB ports at the back. In the late 1990s, a few computer manufacturers started including USB support in their new systems, but today USB has become a standard connection port for many devices such as keyboards, mice, joysticks and digital cameras to name but a few USB-enabled devices. USB is able to support and is supported by a large range of products.

Adding to the appeal of USB is that it is supported at the operating system level, and compared to alternative ports such as parallel or serial ports, USB is very user-friendly. When USB first started appearing in the marketplace, it was (and still is) referred to as a plug-and-play port because of its ease of use. Consumers without a lot of technical or hardware knowledge were able to easily connect USB devices to their computer. You no longer needed to turn the computer off to install the devices either. You simply plug them in and go. USB devices can also be used across multiple platforms. USB works on Windows and Mac, plus can be used with other operating systems, such as Linux, for example, with a reliable degree of success.

Before USB, connecting devices to your system was often a hassle. Modems and digital cameras were connected via the serial port which was quite slow, as only 1 bit is transmitted at a time through a serial port. While printers generally required a parallel printer port, which is able to receive more than one bit at a time — that is, it receives several bits in parallel. Most systems provided two serial ports and a parallel printer port. If you had several devices, unhooking one device and setting up the software and drivers to use another device could often be problematic for the user.

The introduction of USB ended many of the headaches associated with needing to use serial ports and parallel printer ports. USB offered consumers the option to connect up to 127 devices, either directly or through the use of a USB hub. It was much faster since USB supports data transfer rates of 12 Mbps for disk drives and other high-speed throughput and 1.5Mbps for devices that need less bandwidth. Additionally, consumers can literally plug almost any USB device into their computer, and Windows will detect it and automatically set-up the hardware settings for the device. Once that device has been installed you can remove it from your system and the next time you plug it in, Windows will automatically detect it.

Che guvera BiographyChe guvera Biography

*Ernesto (Che) Guevara was born
in Rosario in Argentine in 1928.
After studying medicine at the
University of Buenos Aires he
worked as a doctor. While in
Guatemala in 1954 he witnessed
the socialist government of
President Jacobo Arbenz
overthrown by an American
backed military coup. Disgusted
by what he saw, Guevara decided
to join the Cuban revolutionary,
Fidel Castro, in Mexico.
In 1956 Guevara, Castro and
eighty other men and women
arrived in Cuba in an attempt to
overthrow the government of
General Fulgencio Batista. This
group became known as the July
26 Movement. The plan was to
set up their base in the Sierra
Maestra mountains. On the way
to the mountains they were
attacked by government troops.
By the time they reached the
Sierra Maestra there were only
sixteen men left with twelve
weapons between them. For the
next few months Castro's
guerrilla army raided isolated
army garrisons and were
gradually able to build-up their
stock of weapons.
When the guerrillas took control
of territory they redistributed the
land amongst the peasants. In
return, the peasants helped the
guerrillas against Batista's
soldiers. In some cases the
peasants also joined Castro's
army, as did students from the
cities and occasionally Catholic
priests.
In an effort to find out
information about the rebels
people were pulled in for
questioning. Many innocent
people were tortured. Suspects,
including children, were publicly
executed and then left hanging
in the streets for several days as
a warning to others who were
considering joining the
revolutionaries. The behaviour of
Batista's forces increased
support for the guerrillas. In
1958 forty-five organizations
signed an open letter supporting
the July 26 Movement. National
bodies representing lawyers,
architects, dentists, accountants
and social workers were
amongst those who signed.
Castro, who had originally relied
on the support of the poor, was
now gaining the backing of the
influential middle classes.
General Fulgencio Batista
responded to this by sending
more troops to the Sierra
Maestra. He now had 10,000 men
hunting for Castro and his 300-
strong army. Although
outnumbered, Castro's guerrillas
were able to inflict defeat after
defeat on the government's
troops. In the summer of 1958
over a thousand of Batista's
soldiers were killed or wounded
and many more were captured.
Unlike Batista's soldiers, Castro's
troops had developed a
reputation for behaving well
towards prisoners. This
encouraged Batista's troops to
surrender to Castro when things
went badly in battle. Complete
military units began to join the
guerrillas.
The United States supplied
Batista with planes, ships and
tanks, but the advantage of using
the latest technology such as
napalm failed to win them victory
against the guerrillas. In March
1958, President Dwight
Eisenhower, disillusioned with
Batista's performance, suggested
he held elections. This he did, but
the people showed their
dissatisfaction with his
government by refusing to vote.
Over 75 per cent of the voters in
the capital Havana boycotted the
polls. In some areas, such as
Santiago, it was as high as 98
per cent.
Fidel Castro was now confident
he could beat Batista in a head-
on battle. Leaving the Sierra
Maestra mountains, Castro's
troops began to march on the
main towns. After consultations
with the United States
government, Batista decided to
flee the country. Senior Generals
left behind attempted to set up
another military government.
Castro's reaction was to call for a
general strike. The workers came
out on strike and the military
were forced to accept the
people's desire for change.
Castro marched into Havana on
January 9,1959, and became
Cuba's new leader.
In its first hundred days in office
Castro's government passed
several new laws. Rents were cut
by up to 50 per cent for low
wage earners; property owned
by Fulgencio Batista and his
ministers was confiscated; the
telephone company was
nationalized and the rates were
reduced by 50 per cent; land was
redistributed amongst the
peasants (including the land
owned by the Castro family);
separate facilities for blacks and
whites (swimming pools,
beaches, hotels, cemeteries etc.)
were abolished.
In 1960 Guevara visited China
and the Soviet Union. On his
return he wrote two books
Guerrilla Warfare and
Reminiscences of the Cuban
Revolutionary War . In these
books he argued that it was
possible to export Cuba's
revolution to other South
American countries. Guevara
served as Minister for Industries
(1961-65) but in April 1965 he
resigned and become a guerrilla
leader in Bolivia.
In 1967 David Morales recruited
Félix Rodríguez to train and head
a team that would attempt to
catch Che Guevara. Guevara was
attempting to persuade the tin-
miners living in poverty to join
his revolutionary army. When
Guevara was captured, it was
Rodriguez who interrogated him
before he ordered his execution
in October, 1967. Rodriguez still
possesses Guevara’s Rolex watch
that he took as a trophy.
In their book, Ultimate Sacrifice,
published in 2006, Larmar
Waldron and Thom Hartmann
argued that in 1963 Guevara was
involved in a plot with Juan
Almeida Bosch to overthrow Fidel
Castro.

where was the god when he is created universe?

Great question, Erwin! To be
honest, when I first read it, I had
to stop and think for a while.
Such a concept baffles our
human logic.
Nevertheless, I came up with a
statement that might hint at an
answer: Just because nothing
existed doesn't mean "nowhere"
existed.
For instance, we call space
"space" because nothing is there.
But a rocket ship can still fly
through it. Just because nothing
is there doesn't mean there isn't
a space that can be inhabited.
The absence of matter is "space,"
and we could say that the
absence of space is "matter." So
before there was matter, I
suppose you could say there was
still space.
Admittedly, that's all just my
human logic at work, and I
wouldn't bank on it being
perfect. So let's turn to the Word
of God.
It is true that God made the
earth, and we know a few things
about where God was at the
moment of creation.